Mitochondrial & ageing
Mitochondrial-derived, senolytic and bioregulator peptides.
| Compound | Research area | Residues | Highest evidence | Sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Epitalon | Mitochondrial & ageing | 4 | Early clinical studies | AEDG–OH |
| FOXO4-DRI | Mitochondrial & ageing | see entry | Preclinical (animal and cell studies) | |
| Humanin | Mitochondrial & ageing | 24 | Preclinical (animal and cell studies) | MAPRGFSCLLLLTSEIDLPVKRRA–OH |
| MOTS-c | Mitochondrial & ageing | 16 | Early clinical studies | MRWQEMGYIFYPRKLR–OH |
| Pinealon | Mitochondrial & ageing | 3 | Preclinical (animal and cell studies) | EDR–OH |
| SS-31 (elamipretide) | Mitochondrial & ageing | 4 | Approved drug | RDmtKF–NH₂ |
- Epitalon
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) developed by Vladimir Khavinson's group in St. Petersburg, based on a pineal gland extract. It is studied in aging and telomere research, with evidence coming mostly from that group.
- FOXO4-DRI
FOXO4-DRI is a synthetic D-retro-inverso peptide designed to disrupt the interaction between the transcription factor FOXO4 and p53 in senescent cells. It was described in a 2017 Cell paper as a senolytic in mice; human data are absent.
- Humanin
Humanin is a 24-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide first described in 2001 as a factor protecting neurons from death linked to Alzheimer's disease genes. It is studied in cell and animal models of neurodegeneration, metabolism and aging and is not approved for any use.
- MOTS-c
MOTS-c is a 16-amino-acid peptide encoded within the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene, described in 2015 as a regulator of metabolic homeostasis. Research is mainly in cell and rodent models, with limited human data.
- Pinealon
Pinealon is a synthetic tripeptide (Glu-Asp-Arg) from Vladimir Khavinson's group in St. Petersburg, one of their short peptide bioregulators. It has been studied mainly in cell and animal models of neural aging and stress, with evidence mostly from that group.
- SS-31 (elamipretide)
SS-31, known as elamipretide, is a synthetic mitochondria-targeted tetrapeptide that binds the inner-membrane lipid cardiolipin. It received FDA accelerated approval in September 2025 as Forzinity for Barth syndrome.
Comparisons in this area
- MOTS-c vs SS-31
MOTS-c is a 16-residue peptide encoded in mitochondrial DNA and studied as a metabolic signal; SS-31 (elamipretide) is a synthetic tetrapeptide that targets cardiolipin. SS-31 is FDA-approved for Barth syndrome; MOTS-c is preclinical.
- Humanin vs MOTS-c
Humanin and MOTS-c are mitochondrial-derived peptides encoded within mitochondrial ribosomal RNA genes. This page compares their discovery, sequences, proposed mechanisms, research areas, evidence level, regulatory status and analytical concerns.
- Epitalon vs pinealon
Epitalon and pinealon are short synthetic peptides from the same Russian bioregulator research program, a tetrapeptide and a tripeptide respectively. This page compares their sequences, origins, proposed mechanisms, evidence quality, regulatory status and analytical concerns.